Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is the general name for diseases that cause inflammation in the small intestine and colon. Ulcerative colitis is the most common inflammatory bowel disease and it affects various portions of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, particularly the lower GI tract, and more particularly the colon and/or rectum. A second IBD is Crohn's disease, which predominates in the small intestine (ileum) and the large intestine (colon).
Ulcerative colitis can be difficult to diagnose in that its symptoms are similar to other intestinal disorders and to Crohn's disease. Crohn's disease differs from ulcerative colitis because it causes deeper inflammation into the intestinal wall. Also, Crohn's disease usually occurs in the small intestine, although it can also occur in the mouth, esophagus, stomach, duodenum, large intestine, appendix, and anus.
Ulcerative colitis may occur in people of any age, but most often it starts between ages 15 and 30, or less frequently between ages 50 and 70. Children and adolescents sometimes develop this disease. Ulcerative colitis affects men and women equally and appears to run in some families.
It is also important to consider that about 5 percent of people with ulcerative colitis develop colon cancer. The risk of cancer increases with the duration and the extent of involvement of the colon. For example, if only the lower colon and rectum are involved, the risk of cancer is no higher than normal. However, if the entire colon is involved, the risk of cancer may be as much as 32 times the normal rate. Thus, it is possible that drugs useful in the treatment of IBD may also be useful in the prevention of colon cancer.
The pathogenesis of IBD likely involves multifactorial interactions among genetic factors, immunological factors and environmental triggers. Recent evidence suggests that a pathologic activation of the mucosal immune system in response to antigens is a key factor in the pathogenesis of IBD.
The presentation of antigen in the inflammatory process is closely followed by generation of cytokines, small glycoprotein peptide molecules, which provide signals for the communication among different cell populations determining the direction of subsequent immune and inflammatory response. Pro-inflammatory cytokines include interleukin (IL)-1, IL-6, IL-8 and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α). Macrophages are the major source of cytokines, with epithelial cells also being able to produce a number of these peptide factors.
T helper (Th) cells are a further important source of cytokines. Th1 cells, which are associated with a cell-mediated immune response, produce IL-2, interferon gamma (IFN-γ) and TNF-α. A key transcription factor involved in the regulation of inflammation, NFkB, which is specifically implicated in the pathogenesis of IBD, regulates the amount of cytokines produced by the Th1 cells (see Neurath et al. (1996) Nature Med. 2: 998-1004). Th2 cells enhance antibody synthesis by B cells and produce IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, and IL-10.
Chemokines are also thought to contribute to the pathogenesis of colitis. Chemokines are pro-inflammatory proteins that participate in immune and inflammatory responses through the chemoattraction and activation of leukocytes. For example, RANTES is a C—C chemokine that promotes the recruitment and activation of inflammatory cells such as monocytes, lymphocytes, mast cells and eosinophils. RANTES has recently been shown to be elevated during the chronic phase of colitis (see Ajuebor et al. (2001) J. Immunol. 166: 552-558).
Treatment for ulcerative colitis depends on the seriousness of the illness. Most people are treated with medication. In severe cases, a patient may need surgery to remove the diseased colon.
Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is a common but poorly understood disorder that causes a variety of bowel symptoms including abdominal pain, diarrhea and/or constipation, bloating, gassiness and cramping. While these symptoms may be caused by a number of different bowel diseases, IBS is usually diagnosed only after exclusion of a more serious problem. There is increasing evidence suggesting the role of inflammation in the pathogenesis of IBS.
The goal of therapy is to induce and maintain remission, and to improve the quality of life for people with IBDIBS. Several types of drugs are available.
Aminosalicylates, which are drugs that contain 5-aminosalicylic acid (5-ASA; mesalamine) or 4-aminosalicylic acid (4-ASA), help to control the inflammation. However, both mesalamine and 4-ASA may be absorbed as it passes through the GI tract and may adversely affect the amount of mesalamine that reaches the lower GI tract, particularly the colon and rectum. Thus, various mesalamine formulations have been introduced in an attempt to protect mesalamine as it passes through the gut and upper GI tract.
In addition, several pro-drugs of mesalamine have been introduced which can aid in colon-specific delivery of mesalamine. These pro-drugs are generally less readily absorbed in the gut and upper GI tract and thus can more easily reach the colon.
Sulfasalazine is a combination of sulfapyridine and 5-ASA and is employed to induce and maintain remission. Sulfasalazine is metabolized in the body to form 5-ASA and sulfapyridine. The sulfapyridine component carries the anti-inflammatory 5-ASA to the intestine.
However, sulfapyridine may lead to side effects, such as nausea, vomiting, heartburn, diarrhea, and headache. These adverse side effects are usually attributed to the activity of sulfapyridine in the GI tract, as well as that absorbed into the system.
Other 5-ASA agents such as olsalazine, ipsalazide and balsalazide, each of which have a different carrier, offer fewer side effects, and may be used by people who cannot take sulfasalazine. Unlike sulfasalazine, the breakdown of these 5-ASA compounds in the intestinal tract may not give rise to undesirable metabolic products.
In general, 5-ASA compounds are given orally, through an enema, or in a suppository, depending on the location of the inflammation in the colon. Most people with mild or moderate ulcerative colitis are treated with this group of drugs first. However, in general, this therapy cannot be considered optimal, mainly because of the poor potency of the drug that causes also a poor compliance for the patient.
Other drugs that are used are corticosteroids such as prednisone, hydrocortisone, budesonide etc. and immunomodulators such as azathioprine and 6-mercaptopurine (6-MP). These drugs can cause side effects such as hypertension, increased risk of infections etc.
Sulfasalazine, olsalazide and balsalazide are mesalamine derivatives where the non-mesalamine carrier is linked to mesalamine via a diazo bond. These pro-drugs are not as readily absorbed in the gut and upper GI tract and thus can reach the colon where they are split by azo-reductases of the colonic microflora to release the mesalamine and carrier directly in the colon.
Other derivatives of mesalamine comprise a carrier attached to mesalamine via the carboxylic and hydroxyl functional groups of the molecule. Among these, the preparation of esters or amides with amino acids such as L-serine and L-glycine or the addition of other biological compound such as taurine has been reported. These pro-drugs base their activity on the action of carboxypeptidases and aminopeptidases A for releasing mesalamine. (R. Pellicciari et al. (1993) Journal of Medicinal Chemistry, 36, pg. 4201-7).
Most of the prior art carrier moieties attached to mesalamine are inert. Thus, it is desirable to link carrier moieties to either 5-ASA or 4-ASA, which are also biologically active and useful in the treatment of IBD/IBS.